Key Takeaways
- Wash the wound immediately with soap and water for at least 5 minutes — this single step reduces infection risk more than almost anything else you can do at home.
- Dog bites are polymicrobial. Pasteurella canis is the most common pathogen and can cause rapidly spreading cellulitis within 24 hours.
- Not all dog bites need antibiotics. High-risk wounds — hand bites, deep punctures, face bites with primary closure, immunocompromised patients — warrant amoxicillin-clavulanate 875/125 mg twice daily for 3–5 days.
- Rabies risk is low for a known domestic vaccinated dog. The 10-day observation rule applies: if the dog stays healthy for 10 days, no rabies post-exposure prophylaxis is needed.
- Dog bites are classified as dirty wounds. A Tdap booster is indicated if your last dose was more than 5 years ago.
- Overall infection rate for dog bites is 5–15%, meaningfully lower than cat bites (up to 50%).[6]
Approximately 4.5 million dog bites occur in the United States each year, and roughly 800,000 of those people seek medical attention.[8] Most bites are minor. But the ones that get infected — or the ones that involve the wrong bacteria in the wrong patient — can turn into something serious fast. What you do in the first hour matters as much as anything a clinician will do later.
In my experience treating bite wounds, the patients who do worst are almost never the ones with the biggest lacerations. They're the ones who waited two days to come in, or the ones who are on immunosuppressive medications, or the ones who didn't wash the wound because they thought it "looked clean." A puncture wound that looks innocent on the surface can seed bacteria deep into a tendon sheath.
This guide covers everything a patient needs to know: what to do immediately, how doctors think about infection risk, which wounds need antibiotics, how to assess rabies and tetanus status, and how to identify warning signs before a bite wound becomes a medical emergency.
Immediate First Aid: The First 5 Minutes
Before you call anyone, before you take a photo for insurance purposes, before you do anything else — wash the wound. This is not optional and it is not a small step.
Run the bite under clean running water for a full 5 minutes while scrubbing gently with soap. Animal studies on rabies prevention have shown that thorough wound washing alone — without any vaccination or immune globulin — significantly reduces the likelihood of viral transmission.[4] The same principle applies to bacterial pathogens. You are physically diluting and removing the bacterial load before it can take hold.
Step-by-Step Immediate Care
- Control bleeding first if needed — apply firm, direct pressure with a clean cloth. Do not use a tourniquet unless bleeding is truly uncontrollable and the wound is on a limb.
- Wash the wound with soap and running water for at least 5 minutes. Do not scrub aggressively with a brush — that can drive bacteria into deeper tissue layers.
- Apply antiseptic — povidone-iodine solution or chlorhexidine, if available. Alcohol works in a pinch but stings.
- Cover with a clean bandage loosely. Do not close a puncture wound tightly, and do not apply antibiotic ointment without professional guidance on deep punctures.
- Seek medical evaluation. Even a wound that appears minor deserves clinical assessment of infection risk, tetanus status, and rabies exposure.
Try to identify the dog and its owner if it is safe to do so. Get the dog's vaccination history if possible. Do not attempt to restrain or capture a stray dog on your own. The vaccination status and whereabouts of the dog are critical information for any rabies risk assessment — document everything you can before leaving the scene.
What's in a Dog's Mouth: The Microbiology of Dog Bites
Dog bites are never single-organism infections. The canine oral cavity harbors a complex mix of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, and any bite wound introduces several species simultaneously. This polymicrobial nature is one reason why broad-spectrum coverage — not a narrow-spectrum antibiotic — is the right choice when prophylaxis is indicated.
Pasteurella canis and Pasteurella multocida
Pasteurella canis is the dominant pathogen in infected dog bite wounds, isolated in up to 50% of cases.[5] Its cousin P. multocida is more commonly associated with cat bites but also appears in dog wounds. What makes Pasteurella clinically important is speed: it can produce significant cellulitis — redness, swelling, pain — within 24 hours of inoculation. Patients who come in saying "it got red fast" almost always have Pasteurella. It is exquisitely sensitive to penicillin-class antibiotics, which is one reason amoxicillin-clavulanate works so well.
Capnocytophaga canimorsus
Capnocytophaga canimorsus is the organism that keeps wound care specialists up at night — specifically when the patient is asplenic or significantly immunocompromised.[7] This gram-negative rod is a normal component of canine oral flora and causes no disease in healthy individuals. In patients without a spleen, in those on long-term corticosteroids, or in those with hematologic malignancies, it can cause rapidly progressive bacteremia, septic shock, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and death. Case reports document fatal outcomes within 72 hours of a bite that initially appeared trivial.[7]
If you are asplenic — whether from surgical removal, sickle cell disease, or any other cause — a dog bite is not a minor event. Any fever within a week of a bite requires urgent evaluation. Amoxicillin-clavulanate prophylaxis is standard practice for all asplenic patients regardless of wound severity.
Other Organisms
Beyond Pasteurella and Capnocytophaga, infected dog bite wounds typically grow a mixture of organisms including Streptococcus species, Staphylococcus aureus, Fusobacterium, Bacteroides, and other oral anaerobes.[2] This polymicrobial profile is why culture results from bite wound infections often grow several different organisms — and why monotherapy with a narrow agent like amoxicillin alone is not adequate.
Infection Rate and High-Risk Wounds
The overall infection rate for dog bites is 5–15%, which sounds relatively low but represents a meaningful risk given how common these injuries are.[6] Compare this to cat bites, which infect at a rate approaching 50% — largely because cat teeth are thin and sharp, creating deep punctures that seal over the surface and trap bacteria below.
Not all dog bites carry equal risk. Location, depth, mechanism, and patient immune status together determine whether a wound will become infected. This table summarizes the risk profile:
| Wound Characteristic | Infection Risk | Clinical Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Hand bites | High | Dense tendon sheath anatomy limits immune response; small space allows infection to spread rapidly |
| Deep puncture wounds | High | Surface seals over, trapping bacteria; irrigation reaches poorly |
| Crush injuries | High | Devitalized tissue creates an ideal anaerobic environment |
| Face bites | Low–moderate | Excellent vascular supply reduces infection risk; primary closure generally safe |
| Trunk/extremity lacerations | Low–moderate | Lowest risk overall; good blood supply, irrigable |
| Immunocompromised patient (any location) | High | Impaired host defense elevates risk for all wound types |
| Wounds presenting >8 hours after bite | Elevated | Delayed care allows bacterial proliferation to advance before treatment |
What I tell patients is this: the wound is not the only variable. A shallow bite on the forearm of a healthy person is a different clinical situation than the same wound on a patient taking methotrexate. Ask your clinician specifically about your individual risk category rather than applying general statistics to your situation.
Wound Irrigation and Debridement: What Happens at the Clinic
When you arrive at urgent care, an ER, or a telehealth triage visit, wound management is the first clinical priority — before any decision about antibiotics or closure.
Copious Irrigation
At the clinical level, wound irrigation goes well beyond the home faucet step. Standard protocol calls for delivering at least 250 mL of sterile saline or water under moderate pressure directly into the wound.[6] The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends against blind high-pressure irrigation — meaning you don't push fluid forcefully into a narrow puncture tract, which can spread contamination deeper into tissue planes. The goal is volume and dwell time, not force.
Povidone-iodine solution is commonly used as an adjunct cleanser. It has broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against the pathogens typically present in dog bite wounds.
Debridement
Devitalized tissue — crushed, necrotic, or clearly non-viable tissue — is removed during debridement. This step matters because dead tissue is an ideal bacterial growth medium with no immune defense. Foreign material (dirt, hair, debris) is also removed. What remains should be clean, well-vascularized tissue capable of supporting healing.[1]
Wound Closure: When to Stitch, When to Leave Open
Wound closure after a dog bite is one of the more debated topics in emergency medicine, and the answer is genuinely location-dependent. There is no universal rule.
Facial Wounds: Generally Close
Facial dog bite wounds are typically closed primarily — meaning sutured immediately — even though they are contaminated wounds. Two factors support this approach: the face has one of the best blood supplies in the body, dramatically lowering infection risk, and cosmetic outcome genuinely matters for long-term patient wellbeing.
A 2025 study published in the surgical literature found no significant difference in surgical site infection rates between immediate closure (12.5%) and delayed closure (13.0%) for facial dog bite wounds when thorough debridement and irrigation were performed.[3] Immediate closure was associated with faster healing and superior cosmetic scores at three months. Wound size — not timing — was the primary predictor of infection risk.
Hand Wounds: Generally Leave Open
Hand wounds are a different story. The anatomy of the hand — with its layered tendon sheaths, tight compartments, and limited soft tissue volume — creates conditions where infection spreads readily and immune cells struggle to reach the inoculation site. Standard practice is to leave hand bite wounds open or loosely approximated with widely spaced sutures that allow drainage.
Wounds over metacarpophalangeal joints (the knuckles) deserve special attention. What looks like a simple scrape can be a joint penetration wound — particularly from a human tooth, but also possible with a dog's canine tooth on a small child's hand. Joint penetration requires surgical exploration and washout, not outpatient wound care.
Deep Puncture Wounds: Leave Open
Deep puncture wounds anywhere on the body should not be closed. Closing a puncture seals bacteria in, creates anaerobic conditions, and prevents drainage. These wounds are managed open with close follow-up.
The World Health Organization historically recommended delayed closure for bite wounds. More recent evidence — including pediatric trauma registry data — shows no difference in infectious complications between primary and delayed closure when irrigation is adequate.[1] The direction of thinking has shifted: location and irrigation quality matter more than timing alone.
Antibiotic Prophylaxis: Who Needs It and What to Take
Not every dog bite needs antibiotics. Routine prophylaxis for all bites is not supported by evidence and contributes to unnecessary antibiotic exposure. The question is which wounds cross the threshold into high-risk territory.
When Prophylaxis Is Indicated
- Hand bites — any bite to the hand, regardless of depth
- Deep puncture wounds — especially those that may penetrate bone, joint, or tendon sheath
- Crush injuries with devitalized tissue
- Wounds that are primarily closed (sutured) — closure increases infection risk by eliminating natural drainage
- Face bites — particularly in pediatric patients and when sutured
- Immunocompromised patients — including those on corticosteroids, biologics, or chemotherapy
- Asplenic patients — universal prophylaxis regardless of wound severity
- Patients with diabetes or hepatic disease
- Wounds presenting more than 8 hours after the bite
- Any wound showing early signs of infection — redness, warmth, swelling (now treatment, not prophylaxis)
First-Line Antibiotic: Amoxicillin-Clavulanate
Amoxicillin-clavulanate is the standard choice for dog bite prophylaxis and treatment because it covers the full polymicrobial spectrum: Pasteurella (penicillin-sensitive), Capnocytophaga, oral anaerobes, and skin flora including Streptococcus and oxacillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus.[2]
| Indication | Drug / Dose | Duration |
|---|---|---|
| Prophylaxis — high-risk wound | Amoxicillin-clavulanate 875/125 mg twice daily (adults) | 3–5 days[2] |
| Treatment — established infection | Amoxicillin-clavulanate 875/125 mg twice daily (adults) | 5–7 days |
| Pediatric dosing | 22.5 mg/kg/dose twice daily (max 875 mg amoxicillin per dose) | 3–5 days prophylaxis; 5–7 days treatment[2] |
| Unable to take oral antibiotics | Ampicillin-sulbactam IV | Inpatient, individualized |
Penicillin-Allergic Patients
If you have a true penicillin allergy (not just stomach upset — an actual allergic reaction), alternatives include an extended-spectrum cephalosporin combined with metronidazole for anaerobic coverage, or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole plus clindamycin.[2] Fluoroquinolones combined with metronidazole are another option but are typically reserved for more complex situations. Doxycycline also covers Pasteurella and some anaerobes and may be appropriate in select cases.
Note that roughly 16% of P. multocida isolates show beta-lactamase positivity, which is why plain amoxicillin without the clavulanate component is not adequate for bite wound prophylaxis.[5]
Tetanus Prophylaxis
Dog bites are categorized as dirty wounds because they contain saliva. Under CDC guidance, dirty wounds trigger the 5-year threshold for tetanus booster consideration — shorter than the standard 10-year interval for clean minor wounds.[3]
Practical Decision Rule
- Last tetanus dose less than 5 years ago, primary series complete: No vaccine needed.
- Last tetanus dose 5 or more years ago, primary series complete: Give Tdap (preferred) or Td booster.
- Incomplete primary series or unknown vaccination history: Begin or complete the series; also give tetanus immune globulin (TIG) if the wound is high-risk.
- HIV-positive patients: TIG is indicated regardless of vaccination history or wound type.
Tdap is preferred over plain Td for patients who have not previously received an adult Tdap dose, as it provides concurrent protection against pertussis (whooping cough). Tetanus itself — Clostridium tetani — grows in the anaerobic conditions of deep wounds, which is exactly the profile of a dog bite puncture.
One important clarification: antibiotics do not protect against tetanus and should never be used as a substitute for vaccine or TIG prophylaxis.[3]
Rabies Risk Assessment: The 10-Day Rule and When PEP Is Needed
Rabies is almost universally fatal once symptoms develop. This is why every dog bite requires a structured rabies risk assessment — even for minor wounds. The good news is that the vast majority of domestic dog bites in the United States carry negligible rabies risk. The question is always whether you can be confident about the dog's vaccination and health status.
The Three Exposure Scenarios
| Animal Category | Rabies Risk | Recommended Action |
|---|---|---|
| Known domestic dog, current rabies vaccination, owner identified | Very low | Observe dog for 10 days. If dog remains healthy, no PEP needed. If dog develops signs of illness, contact health department immediately.[4] |
| Stray dog, unknown vaccination status, unavailable for observation | Moderate | Initiate PEP unless geographic area is declared rabies-free for dogs; consult local health department |
| Bat, raccoon, fox, skunk, or other wildlife | High | Start PEP immediately; do not wait for lab results if contact cannot be ruled out |
The 10-Day Observation Period
The rationale behind 10-day dog observation is well-established virology. A dog that is shedding rabies virus in its saliva at the time of the bite will show clinical signs of rabies within 10 days. If the dog remains healthy throughout that period, it was not shedding virus at the time of the bite, and no PEP is required.[4] The dog should not be vaccinated during this period, as vaccination could interfere with the observation.
Rabies Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP)
When PEP is indicated for a previously unvaccinated person, the regimen includes:[4]
- Human rabies immune globulin (HRIG) — given once on Day 0, infiltrated around the wound site as completely as possible. HRIG provides immediate passive antibody protection while the vaccine takes effect. Dose is 20 IU/kg body weight.
- Rabies vaccine — 4 doses of 1 mL intramuscularly in the deltoid on Days 0, 3, 7, and 14. Immunocompromised patients receive a fifth dose on Day 28.
- HRIG and the first vaccine dose must not be given in the same syringe or the same anatomical site — this neutralizes both products.
- Never administer rabies vaccine in the gluteal muscle — absorption is poor and antibody titers may be inadequate.
For previously vaccinated individuals, PEP consists of only two vaccine doses (Days 0 and 3) — no HRIG, as their established immune response will amplify rapidly.
ER, Urgent Care, or Telehealth: Where to Go
One of the most practical questions after a dog bite is where to seek care. The right answer depends on the wound, the dog, and your overall health status.
- Active bleeding that won't stop with sustained direct pressure
- Wounds to the face or neck involving deep structures
- Suspected joint, tendon, or bone penetration — particularly bites over a knuckle
- Fever, chills, or rapid spreading redness — signs of systemic infection
- Concern for rabies exposure where PEP must begin within hours (stray or wild animal bite)
- You are asplenic, immunocompromised, or have active cancer
- The wound is large, a crush injury, or involves significant tissue loss
| Level of Care | Appropriate When |
|---|---|
| Emergency Department | Uncontrolled bleeding; deep face/neck wounds; potential joint involvement; systemic infection signs; stray/wildlife rabies exposure; severe crush injury; asplenic or severely immunocompromised patient |
| Urgent Care | Moderate laceration requiring irrigation and possible closure; controlled bleeding; needs wound assessment, tetanus evaluation, and antibiotic decision in person; known domestic vaccinated dog |
| Telehealth Triage | Minor wound, bleeding controlled, known vaccinated domestic dog; needs antibiotic guidance, rabies risk discussion, and tetanus status review; wound is clean, shallow, and not on the hand or face |
Telehealth is genuinely useful here. If you've been bitten by your neighbor's vaccinated Labrador and the wound is a shallow scrape on your forearm that has stopped bleeding after washing — you don't necessarily need to sit in an urgent care waiting room for three hours. A telehealth triage visit can review the wound (via video), assess your tetanus status, determine whether antibiotics are appropriate, and advise on wound monitoring. What telehealth cannot do is irrigate the wound under pressure, suture, or administer HRIG or vaccines. Know the limits and act accordingly.
Recognizing Infection: What to Watch For
Most dog bite infections develop within 24 to 72 hours of the injury. Pasteurella infections characteristically appear early — sometimes within a single day — while Staphylococcal infections tend to manifest later, at 48 hours or beyond.
Warning Signs Requiring Prompt Medical Attention
- Increasing redness spreading beyond the wound margin
- Warmth and swelling that worsen rather than improve
- Pus or cloudy discharge from the wound
- Red streaking extending from the wound up an arm or leg — this is lymphangitis and indicates the infection is spreading through the lymphatic system. It requires same-day treatment.
- Fever above 100.4°F (38°C) in the days following a bite
- Increased pain 24–48 hours after the bite (wounds should hurt less over time, not more)
- Swollen lymph nodes near the bite site
If you are asplenic and develop any of these signs — or simply feel unwell in ways that are difficult to describe — do not wait. Capnocytophaga canimorsus sepsis has a 30% case fatality rate and can progress from seemingly minor symptoms to shock within 24–48 hours.[7]
Reporting Requirements
Dog bite reporting requirements vary by state and jurisdiction, but many localities require animal bites to be reported to animal control or the local public health department. This is not primarily about penalizing the dog or its owner. The public health purpose is to ensure the biting animal can be observed for rabies risk, verify vaccination status, and track patterns of dog aggression in the community.[9]
In most jurisdictions, healthcare providers treating a dog bite wound are also mandated reporters — meaning they are required to notify local animal control. As a patient, reporting the incident independently protects you as well. An official record establishes the dog's observation period and creates documentation if you need medical care later that is linked to the bite.
The specific reporting agency — animal control, county health department, or both — depends on where you live. Your clinician or local health department website can confirm the requirements for your area.
The Psychological Impact: What Patients Don't Always Discuss
The physical wound heals. The emotional aftermath often takes longer, and it is frequently overlooked in clinical encounters focused on wound management.
Dog bite injuries — especially in children — are associated with a meaningful risk of psychological consequences. A 2024 review in BMJ Paediatrics Open found that post-traumatic stress disorder was the most common psychological outcome following pediatric dog bites, particularly when the injury was severe or involved the face and neck.[10] Common responses include traumatic flashbacks, recurrent nightmares, generalized anxiety, avoidance of dogs (and sometimes outdoor spaces), and hypervigilance that can persist for years if untreated.
Children who develop dog phobia after a bite face real limitations: avoiding parks, friends' homes with pets, and outdoor activities. Parents should watch for these behavioral changes in the weeks after an incident and not dismiss them as a temporary reaction that will self-resolve.
Adults are not immune. Fear of specific breeds or environments following a traumatic bite is normal and often proportionate to the severity of the experience. If anxiety or avoidance behaviors are affecting your daily life, brief cognitive behavioral therapy and exposure-based treatments have a strong evidence base for dog phobia and post-traumatic stress specifically.
At TeleDirectMD, our clinicians routinely ask about the emotional impact during follow-up visits. Physical healing matters — but so does getting back to life without fear. If the psychological component was not addressed at your initial visit, bring it up.
Frequently Asked Questions
No. Low-risk dog bites — shallow lacerations on the trunk or limbs in healthy adults, treated promptly with irrigation — generally do not require prophylactic antibiotics. Antibiotic prophylaxis is reserved for high-risk wounds: hand bites, deep punctures, crush injuries, face bites that are sutured, and bites in immunocompromised or asplenic patients. The standard choice is amoxicillin-clavulanate 875/125 mg twice daily for 3 to 5 days.[2]
It depends on the dog. A domestic dog with a current rabies vaccination and a known owner can be observed for 10 days. If the dog remains healthy, no rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is needed.[4] PEP — human rabies immune globulin plus a 4-dose vaccine series — is indicated for stray dogs with unknown vaccination status, wild animals, or any dog that cannot be observed. Your local health department guides final decisions based on local epidemiology.
Yes — immediately and thoroughly. Running the wound under clean water with soap for 5 minutes is the single most important first step. In animal studies, wound washing alone has been shown to significantly reduce rabies transmission risk.[4] At a medical setting, formal wound irrigation uses at least 250 mL of saline or sterile water under moderate pressure. Do not scrub the wound with a brush — that can drive bacteria deeper into tissue.
Dog bites are polymicrobial. The most common pathogen is Pasteurella canis, which can cause rapidly progressive cellulitis within 24 hours. Other organisms include Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Capnocytophaga canimorsus, and various anaerobes.[2] Capnocytophaga is harmless in healthy people but can cause life-threatening sepsis in asplenic or severely immunocompromised individuals. This polymicrobial nature is why broad-spectrum coverage with amoxicillin-clavulanate is the right choice — not a narrow-spectrum agent — when antibiotics are warranted.
Closure decisions depend on location. Facial wounds are generally closed immediately because excellent blood supply limits infection risk and cosmetic outcome matters — a 2025 study found no significant difference in infection rates between immediate and delayed facial closure when irrigation was thorough.[3] Hand wounds are typically left open or loosely approximated due to high infection risk. Deep puncture wounds on any body part should remain open. Your physician will weigh location, time since injury, contamination, and your immune status together.
Dog bites are classified as dirty wounds. Per CDC guidance, a Tdap or Td booster is recommended if your last dose was more than 5 years ago.[3] If you have never completed a primary tetanus series (3 doses), you should receive both the vaccine and tetanus immune globulin (TIG). Tdap is preferred over plain Td if you have not received a Tdap dose as an adult, since it also protects against pertussis. Antibiotics do not prevent tetanus and cannot substitute for vaccination.
Infection signs typically develop 24 to 72 hours after the bite. Watch for increasing redness spreading beyond the wound edge, warmth, swelling, pus or cloudy discharge, red streaking extending from the wound (lymphangitis), fever, or worsening pain. Pasteurella infections, in particular, can progress rapidly — significant cellulitis within a single day is possible. Seek care promptly if any of these signs appear, even if the wound initially looked minor. For asplenic patients, any systemic symptoms after a dog bite warrant urgent evaluation.
Go to the ER for: uncontrolled bleeding, deep wounds involving tendons or joints, bites to the face or neck with deep tissue involvement, stray or wild animal exposure requiring urgent PEP, or systemic infection signs (fever, chills, confusion). Urgent care handles moderate lacerations, wound irrigation, antibiotic evaluation, and tetanus assessment. Telehealth triage works well for minor shallow wounds from known vaccinated domestic dogs — a clinician can review the wound via video, assess rabies and tetanus status, and advise on antibiotic need. Know which tier your situation requires.
References
- Kim J, et al. Infection prevention and treatment following dog bites: A systematic review. Journal of Trauma and Injury. 2025 Mar. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11968313/
- Brook I. Management of dog bites in children. Canadian Family Physician. 2012 Oct. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3470506/
- Pubmed. Immediate versus delayed closure of facial dog-bite wounds. 2025 Oct. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41054047/
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Clinical Guidance for Wound Management to Prevent Tetanus. Last reviewed June 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/tetanus/hcp/clinical-guidance/index.html
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Rabies Post-exposure Prophylaxis Guidance. Last reviewed July 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/hcp/clinical-care/post-exposure-prophylaxis.html
- Medscape. Pasteurella Multocida Infection Treatment & Management. https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/224920-treatment
- American Academy of Pediatrics. Bite Wounds — Red Book 2024. 2024 Apr. https://publications.aap.org/redbook/book/755/chapter/14074929/Bite-Wounds
- Rutter A, et al. Capnocytophaga canimorsus Meningitis: Diagnosis Using PCR. Infectious Diseases and Therapy. 2019 Jan. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6374236/
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Dog Bite Deaths, United States 2011–2021. NCHS Data Brief. 2023 Sep. https://blogs.cdc.gov/nchs/2023/09/08/7452/
- California Department of Public Health. Animal Bites — Reporting Requirements. https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/Pages/AnimalBites.aspx
- Schwebel DC, et al. Review of psychological effects of dog bites in children. BMJ Paediatrics Open. 2024 Jun. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11163822/